Free Chemistry NEET Notes for Aldehydes Ketones And Carboxylic Acids

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- Aldehydes Ketones And Carboxylic Acids -

Important Chemistry Notes for IITJEE/NEET Preparation- Aldehydes Ketones And Carboxylic Acids

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ALDEHYDES AND KETONES

Aldehydes and Ketones are characterised by the presence of Carbonyl group >C = O in their molecules. Aldehydes contain group

and ketones the

. If the groups attached to carbonyl carbon are the same, the ketone is symmetrical and if they are different the ketone is unsymmetrical.

NATURE OF CARBONYL GROUP

The carbon and oxygen of the carbonyl group are sp2 hybridised and the carbonyl double bond is made of one s bond and one p bond.

The electronegativity of oxygen is much higher than that of carbon, the p electron cloud is displaced towards the oxygen. Therefore the C–O bond is polar in nature and carbonyl compounds possess dipole moment (2.3 to 2.8 D)

NOMENCLATURE OF ALDEHYDES

There are two systems

Common system : The suffix “-ic acid” is replaced by the suffix “-aldehyde”
IUPAC system : The suffix “-e” of alkane is replaced by the suffix “-al”.

Compound Common name IUPAC name

HCHO Formaldehyde Methanal

CH3CHO Acetaldehyde Ethanal

NOMENCLATURE OF KETONES

Common system : Symmetrical ketones are named as dialkyl ketone and name of unsymmetrical ketone is obtained by naming the alkyl groups alphabetically and adding the third word ketone.
IUPAC system : The suffix “-e” of corresponding alkane is replaced by “-one”

Compound Common name IUPAC name

H3C.COCH3 dimethyl ketone (acetone) Propanone

H3C.COC2H5 ethyl methyl ketone butanone

In higher ketones the numbering of C-atoms is must to show the position of carbonyl group. eg. :

3-hexanone

2-methyl-4-heptanone

ISOMERISM IN ALDEHYDES

Aldehydes exhibit two types of isomerism

Chain isomerism

neet chemistry notes for aldehydes ketones and carboxylic acids class 12

Functional isomerism

ISOMERISM IN KETONES

They exhibit three types of isomerism

Chain isomerism

Functional isomerism

Position isomerism

GENERAL METHODS OF PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES

Controlled oxidation of primary alcohols
Oxidising agents K2Cr2O7/H2SO4 or KMnO4/H2SO4

PCC is pyridinium chlorochromate known as Collin’s reagent and is specific for oxidation of 1º alcohol to aldehyde.

Dehydrogenation of primary alcohol

By Rosenmund reduction from acid chloride

Hydration of Alkynes (Kucherov reaction)

Reductive ozonolysis of alkenes

Distillation of Calcium salt of fatty acid with calcium formate

From acid

Waker’s process

Oxo process

Stephen’s reduction of nitriles :

Hydrolysis of Geminal halides

From Glycols

From Grignard’s reagent

From acid chloride by the use of lithium t-butoxy aluminium hydride

GENERAL METHODS OF PREPARATION OF KETONES ONLY

Oxidation of 2º alcohol
Oxidising agent K2Cr2O7/H2SO4 or KMnO4/H2SO4

Dehydrogenation of 2º alcohols

Hydration of alkynes

Reductive ozonolysis of alkenes

From Calcium salt of an acid

From acid

Hydrolysis of non-terminal gem.halide

From Grignard’s reagents

From acid chlorides

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Formaldehyde is a gas and its 40% aqueous solution was known as formalin but now it is 40% HCHO, 8% CH3OH, 52% H2O. They are polar in nature and have higher values of b.p. Lower members are soluble in water.
Lower aldehydes and ketones (C1 – C4) are soluble in water due to presence of H–bonding.

Reactivity

It is due to + I effect of alkyl groups which decreases the +ve charge on carbonyl carbon.

Steric hindrance : The bulky alkyl group hinder the approach of nucleophile.

a-hydrogen atom is acidic in nature due to Resonance

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

ADDITION REACTIONS

Their addition reactions are known as nucleophilic addition reactions

The followings reaction in different ways with NH3

It is used as urinary antiseptic.

NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTIONS WITH ELIMINATION OF WATER MOLECULE

The control of pH is must for these reactions. The optimum value is around 3.5.

Control of pH during formation of ammonia derivatives :

At low pH : H+ concentration is very high. The carbonyl compound and ammonia derivative, both protonated and latter cannot act as nucleophile .

At high pH : H+ concentration is too small. The protonation of carbonyl group will not occur and reaction will not occur smoothly.

Hence, optimum pH of the medium is around 3.5.

OXIDATION

Ketones are oxidised by strong oxidising agents such as Conc. HNO3, K2Cr2O7/H2SO4, KMnO4/H2SO4

OXIDATION WITH SeO2
The CH3 group adjacent to

is oxidised to – CHO and >CH2 group is oxidised to
>C = O group.

POPOFF’S RULE
During oxidation of unsymmetrical ketone the carbonyl group is retained by smaller alkyl group.

(major products)

Jone’s reagent : Acidified K2Cr2O7 i.e. chromic acid and sulphuric acid mixture

HALOFORM REACTION

Oxidation of acetaldehyde or methyl ketones with Sodium Hypohalite (NaOX) or (X2 + NaOH) gives haloform CHX3. The reaction is of practical value to identify these compounds by forming CHI3.

BAYER-VILLIGER OXIDATION

Oxidation of aliphatic Ketones by organic per acids, e.g. perbenzoic acid, peracetic acid or monoperthalic acid to form esters or their hydrolysed products

REDUCTION

CONDENSATION REACTIONS

ALDOL CONDENSATION

Aldehydes and Ketones having at least one a-hydrogen atom in presence of dil. alkali give b- hydroxy aldehyde or b-hydroxy ketone, which on heating gives a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compound.

CROSSED ALDOL CONDENSATION

INTRAMOLECULAR ALDOL CONDENSATION neet chemistry notes for aldehydes ketones and carboxylic acids class 12

CANNIZZARO’S REACTION

Aldehydes containing no a-hydrogen atom on warming with 50% NaOH or KOH undergo disproportionation i.e. self oxidation - reduction known as cannizzaro’s reaction.

* 2-methyl propanal (CH3)2CH.CHO has a-hydrogen atom but gives Cannizzaro’s reaction.

Aldehydes containing a-H atoms on heating with conc. alkali give brown resinous mass by undergoing repeated aldol condensation.

CROSSED CANNIZZARO’S REACTION

TISHCHENKO REACTION

Aldehydes containing a-hydrogen atom with aluminium ethoxide give esters.

REFORMATSKY REACTION

It is the reaction between an a-bromo acid ester and a carbonyl compound (aldehyde or ketone) in the presence of zinc to form a b-hydroxy ester.

BECKMANN’S REARRANGEMENT

It is rearrangement of keto oxime to N-substituted acid amide in presence of Conc. H2SO4, PPA, SOCl2, PCl5 etc.

CONDENSATION PRODUCTS OF ACETONE

Above reactions are not aldol condensations.

POLYMERS OF FORMALDEHYDES

POLYMERS OF ACETALDEHYDE

BENZALDEHYDE (AROMATIC ALDEHYDES)

PREPARATION

Etard’s oxidation

Oxidation of toluene

Gattermann Koch Synthesis

(Combination of CO + HCl act as formyl chloride HCOCl)

It is an electrophilic substitution reaction, the electrophile

is formylium ion.

Gattermann aldehyde synthesis

From benzyl chloride (Lab method)

Rosenmund reaction

Vilsmeyer reaction

From Grignard’s reaction

From Benzal chloride (manufacture)

Partial oxidation of toluene (manufacture)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Colourless, highly refractive liquid b.p. 443K. It has smell of bitter almonds, slightly soluble in water. Steam volatile and poisonous.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

REACTION OF CHO GROUP GIVEN BY AROMATIC ALDEHYDES

REACTIONS DUE TO BENZENE NUCLEUS

CHO group is meta directing with deactivation of benzene nucleus

Benzaldehyde reduces Tollen’s reagent but not Fehling solution.

USES

As flavouring agent
In perfumes
Manufacture of triphenylmethane dyes

ACETOPHENONE (AROMATIC KETONES)

PREPARATION

By Friedel Craft’s acylation
From benzaldehyde
Manufacture

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

It is colourless crystalline compound m.p. 20ºC, b.p. 202ºC.

At room temperature it is coloured liquid.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Reactions due to . It gives almost all reactions due >C = O group.
Reactions due to benzene nucleus : –COCH3 is meta directing in nature. Hence electrophilic substitution reactions give meta derivative.
It give iodoform test.
Some important reactions are :

Its vapour attack nose, throat and lungs. It is used as tear gas.

USES

It is used as hypnotic in medicine.

TEST FOR ALDEHYDE

Tollen’s reagent (ammoniacal silver nitrate). All aldehydes give silver mirror.

Fehling Solution (alkaline solution of Cu2+ complexed with Sodium potassium tartrate blue colour). All aldehydes give red colour except benzaldehyde.

Benedict’s solution (Copper sulphate, sodium citrate and sodium carbonate solution). Aldehydes give reddish brown ppt.
Schiff’s reagent (dilute solution of p-rosaniline hydrochloride decolourised with SO2 or H2SO4). Aldehydes give pink colour.

Acetone respond to this test slowly and o-hydroxy benzaldehyde does not give pink colour with schiff’s reagent

Note : Formic acid, tartaric acid, a-hydroxy ketones, glucose, fructose reduce Tollen reagent and Fehling solution.

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

The compounds containing the carboxyl functional group

are called Carboxylic acids. The word carboxyl is a combination of two words carbonyl (>C=O) and hydroxyl (–OH).

CLASSIFICATION

Depending upon the number of –COOH groups they are classified as

Monocarboxylic acids: containing one -COOH group
dicarboxylic acids: containing two -COOH groups and so on
Fatty acids: Aliphatic monocarboxylic acids are commonly called fatty acids because higher members are obtained by the hydrolysis of oils and fats.

NOMENCLATURE

There are three ways of naming carboxylic acids

Common System

The common names are derived from the source of acids.

Formula Common name Source

HCOOH Formic acid Red ant (formica)

CH3COOH Acetic acid Vinegar (acetium)

C3H7COOH Butyric acid Butter (butyrum)

The position of substituents are indicated by Greek letters

etc. The carbon atom adjacent to carboxyl group is assigned the letter

, the next

and so on

-methyl propionic acid

-methyl butyric acid

Derived System

Acids are regarded as alkyl derivatives of acetic acid eg.

IUPAC System
They are named as Alkanoic acids eg.

HCOOH Methanoic acid

C3H7COOH Butanoic acid

While naming the complex acids, the longest chain is picked up and the carbon atoms are numbered starting from carboxyl group which is given number 1.

ISOMERISM

POSITION AND CHAIN ISOMERISM
eg. C6H12O2 represent

2, 3 - dimethyl butanoic acid All the seven are chain Isomers

3, 3 - dimethyl butanoic acid

2, 2 - dimethyl butanoic acid

FUNCTIONAL ISOMERISM

GENERAL METHODS OF PREPARATION

Oxidation of 1º alcohols and aldehydes with acid K2Cr2O7 or KMnO4

Oxidation of methyl ketones (Haloform reaction) with X2/NaOH

Hydrolysis of cyanides : Hydrolysis may be affected by acid or alkali

Hydrolysis of an ester: with alkali or acid

Ease of hydrolysis

Alkaline hydrolysis of an ester is known as saponification

Hydrolysis of trihalogen derivative of alkanes

Carboxylation of alkenes (Koch reaction)

Reaction of Grignard Reagents with CO2

By heating sodium alkoxide with CO

From Sodium alkyl and CO2

Catalytic oxidation of long chain hydrocarbons

From alkynes

By heating dicarboxylic acids eg oxalic acid or malonic acid

By acidic hydrolysis of Malonic or aceto acetic ester

MANUFACTURE OF METHANOIC ACID

MANUFACTURE OF ACETIC ACID

By air oxidation of Acetaldehyde

By air oxidation of Butane

Quick vinegar process

The production is limited to the production of vinegar only which is 5 to 7% acetic acid

Glacial acetic acid

Pure acetic acid when cooled forms ice like solid (glacier) hence it is called glacial acetic acid.

GENERAL PROPERTIES

Acids upto C10 are liquids with unpleasant odours. The higher members are colourless waxy solids. Boiling points of acids increase regularly with molecular weight and higher than alcohols (of comparable molecular mass) due to formation of dimer through H-bonding

SOLUBILITY

Acids upto C4 are completely soluble in water due to H-bonding. Solubility regularly decreases rapidly due to increase in hydrophobic character of alkyl group.

MELTING POINTS

The melting point of even number acid is always higher than the next lower and higher odd number acid (alternation effect or oscillation effect) due to effective crystal lattice being symmetrical in nature*

ACIDITY OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

The carboxylic acids on ionisation produce carboxylate ion which is stabilised by resonance

Electrons releasing alkyl groups decrease the acidity. Hence lower members are more acidic than higher members eg

As the size of alkyl group increases the ionic character of O-H bond decreases

Electrons withdrawing substituents increase the acidity by increasing the ionic character of – O – H bond by inductive effect and dispersing the negative charge of anion formed neet chemistry notes for aldehydes ketones and carboxylic acids class 12

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

REDUCING CHARACTER OF FORMIC ACID

ACTION OF HEAT ON FORMATES

Sodium formate 2HCOONa

COONa + H2

COONa

Sod. oxalate

Calcium formate

Ammonium formate

ACID DERIVATIVES

The compounds obtained by replacing –OH group of

in acid by –X, –OCOR, –OR or –NH2 are called acid derivatives. They are

Acid halide (X = Cl, Br, I)

Acid anhydride

Ester

Acid amide

The order of reactivity for nucleophilic substitution reactions (known as acyl substitution reactions) is as follows

The factors affecting the above order are (i) Inductive effect (ii) Resonance and (iii) Nature of leaving group. The more the basic character of the leaving group, the lesser is the reactivity and basic character follows the order

ACID CHLORIDES

IUPAC name Alkanoyl Chloride

METHODS OF PREPARATION

From acids

From Salts (Industrial method)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Acid Chlorides are polar in nature, still insoluble in water due to absence of hydrogen bonding which is also the reason of their having low b.p. than acids.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

USES

As acylating agent
Determination of –NH2 and OH group in a molecule

ACID ANHYDRIDE (RCO)₂O

IUPAC name Alkanoic anhydride

Formula Common name IUPAC name

Acetic anhydride Ethanoic anhydride

Propionic anhydride Propanoic anhydride

METHODS OF PREPARATION

(mixed anhydride)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The anhydrides are colourless liquids with irritating smell.

Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

USES

Acetic anhydride is used as acetylating agent in the manufacture of plastics, cellulose acetate and polyvinyl acetate.

ESTERS

IUPAC name alkyl alkanoate

Formula Common name IUPAC name

ethyl acetate ethyl ethanoate

methyl acetate methyl ethanoate

METHODS OF PREPARATION

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Esters are pleasant smelling liquids sparingly soluble in water soluble in alcohol and ether.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Note. Alcoholysis is usually effective in replacing a higher alcohol by lower one eg.

Hydrolysis of carboxylic esters may be formulated in two ways

and

Base or acid catalysed bimolecular involving acyl-oxygen heterolysis are very common

Acid catalysed unimolecular involving alkyl-oxygen heterolysis is very common for t-alcohols

occurs in solvent having high ionizing power and alcohol forms stable carbonium ion.

Claisen condensation: Intermolecular condensation of esters containing a-hydrogen atom in presence of strong base to form b-keto ester

USES OF ESTERS

In making artificial essences and flavours.

AMIDES

IUPAC name Alkanamide

Formula Common name IUPAC name

HCONH2 Formamide Methanamide

CH3CONH2 Acetamide Ethanamide

METHODS OF PREPARATION

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Except formamide, amides are colourless, crystalline solids, lower members are soluble in water and alcohol. Their m.p.are higher due to hydrogen bonding

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

USES

In leather tanning and paper industry, preparation of nitrogen compounds.

UREA, CARBAMIDE (H₂N.CO.NH2)

It is diamide of carbonic acid

Urea is the normal end product of protein metabolism and excreted in urine about 30 gm in 24 hours by an adult person.

PREPARATION

Wohler synthesised in 1828, urea the first organic compound by heating ammonium cyanate

By the action of ammonia on phosgene, ethyl carbonate, chloroformate or Urethanes.

Manufacture

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

White crystalline solid mpt 132ºC soluble in water, alcohol, insoluble in ether.

It is mono acidic base.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

USES

It is used as fertilizer
making barbiturates
urea formaldehyde resin
To improve octane number
Stabilizer for explosives

SUBSTITUTED ACIDS

The acids obtained by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms from the alkyl group of the acid by groups such as Cl, OH, CN, NH2 etc are known as substituted acids. The position of the latter is indicated by Greek letters like a, b, g, d etc (common system) or by numbers like 1, 2, 3 etc (IUPAC System) eg.

- hydroxybutyric acid (common)

3 - hydroxy butanoic acid (IUPAC)

Distinction between different substituted acids can be made by the application of heat

-Amino acids

-Hydroxy acids

-hydroxy acids

and

-hydroxy acids

-Halogeno acids.

They yield

-hydroxy acids

-Halogeno acids

SATURATED DICARBOXYLIC ACIDS

The compounds containing two carboxyl groups are known as dicarboxylic acids. They have the general formula CnH2n (COOH)2

NOMENCLATURE

Their IUPAC group name is Alkanedioic acid

GENERAL PROPERTIES

All are colourless crystalline solids, soluble in water. Solubility with increase in molecular weight, the odd acids are more soluble than even due to lower symmetry and poor packing.
Their melting points follow the Oscillation or alternation rule which states that the melting point of an “even” acid is higher than that of the “odd” acid immediately below and above it in the series. It is also known as “saw-tooth” rule.
Acid Strength: The strength of acids decreases from lower to higher member of the series as shown by the pka values

Acid Oxalic acid Malonic acid Succinic acid Glutaricacid Adipic acid

pka 1.271 2.86 4.21 4.34 4.41

This is due to –I effect of the carboxylic group which decreases with the length of the carbon atom chain.

Action of heat

Blanc’s rule: On heating the acid with acetic anhydride and then distilling the product at 300ºC, 1, 4 and 1, 5 - dicarboxylic acid give cyclic anhydrides and 1, 6 and 1, 7-dicarboxylic acid give cyclic ketones provided the acids are unsubstituted. If no change the acid is 1, 8 or more.

The rule helps to determine the size of rings.

Note A

-keto acid is easily decarboxylated by heating

TARTARIC ACID

It occurs in free state in tamarind and as potassium salt in various fruits such as grapes, plums, etc.

PREPARATION

From Argol or Tartar - A brown coloured crystalline mass formed during the fermentation of grape juice known as argol is crystallised from hot water to get cream of tartar which contains impure (+) potassium hydrogen tartrate. Tartaric acid is obtained as follows :

From Glyoxal

From Fumaric acid

From Maleic acid

From dibromosuccinic acid

PROPERTIES

It is colourless crystalline solid m.p. 171ºC soluble in water, alcohol, insoluble in ether. Natural tartaric acid is d-tartaric acid.

USES

It is used in silvering mirror
Tartar emetic is used to cause nausea and vomiting in case of poisoning
Pot. acid tartrate is used in Baking powder
Rochelle salt is used in preparing Fehling solution.

CITRIC ACID

It occurs in free state in citrus fruits eg.: lemon, orange lime etc. Lemon juice contains about 7% citric acid.

PREPARATION

From lemon juice

From Sugar - Fermentation of molasses in presence of aspergillus niger or citromyces pfeferianus and inorganic salts. eg.: (NH4)2CO3, MgSO4 etc.

From glycerol

PROPERTIES

It is colourless crystalline substance. Its m. pt. is 100ºC soluble in water and alcohol. Insoluble in ether. Optically inactive.

Complex formation : Benedict Solution
It contain Copper Sulphate, Sodium Carbonate and Sodium Citrate. The structure of complex is neet chemistry notes for aldehydes ketones and carboxylic acids class 12

It is more stable than Fehling solution

USES

Mg Citrate is used as laxative in medicine
As mordant in dyeing and printing
Ferric ammonium citrate as Iron tonic
It is used in preparing acidulated soft drinks, jams, jellies, etc.

OXALIC ACID, ETHANEDIOIC ACID (COOH)₂.2H2O

PREPARATION

Oxidation of Sucrose (Lab Method)

Manufacture

Hydrolysis of Cyanogen

PROPERTIES

Colourless crystalline compound. Soluble in water & alcohol, insoluble in ether m.p. 101.2ºC (hydrated) & 189.5ºC (anhydrous)

USES

As a mordant in dyeing
Volumetric analysis
Removing ink stains
In photography

BENZOIC ACID

C6H5COOH

PREPARATION

By oxidation of alcohol or aldehyde

By Oxidation of homologues of benzene : Oxidising agents dil. HNO3, alk. KMnO4, K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4

By use of Grignard’s reagent

Hydrolysis of Cyanides

Manufacture of benzoic acid

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

It is colourless crystalline compound. Stronger than aliphatic acids and sparingly soluble in water.

Acid Character : Ortho, para directing groups with activation decrease the acid character, while meta directing groups increase the acid character of benzoic acid.

Ortho effect : Ortho substituted benzoic acids are more stronger than benzoic acid regardless of the nature of the substituent Ka of benzoic acid is 6.3 × 10–5

Acidity constants of substituted benzoic acids and order of acid strength (Ka = X × 10–5)

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

USES

Sodium benzoate is used as food preservative.

SALICYCLIC ACID

o-hydroxy benzoic acid

PREPARATION

Kolbe-Schmidt reaction

Reimer-Tiemann Reaction

PROPERTIES

Colourless crystalline substance m. pt. 429 K. Sublimes on heating.

Free Chemistry NEET Notes for Aldehydes Ketones And Carboxylic Acids

Free Chemistry Notes for Aldehydes Ketones And Carboxylic Acids (NEET)

- Aldehydes Ketones And Carboxylic Acids -

Important Chemistry Notes for IITJEE/NEET Preparation- Aldehydes Ketones And Carboxylic Acids

NATURE OF CARBONYL GROUP

NOMENCLATURE OF ALDEHYDES

NOMENCLATURE OF KETONES

ISOMERISM IN ALDEHYDES

ISOMERISM IN KETONES

GENERAL METHODS OF PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES

GENERAL METHODS OF PREPARATION OF KETONES ONLY

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

ADDITION REACTIONS

NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTIONS WITH ELIMINATION OF WATER MOLECULE

OXIDATION

REDUCTION

CONDENSATION REACTIONS

BENZALDEHYDE (AROMATIC ALDEHYDES)

PREPARATION

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

USES

ACETOPHENONE (AROMATIC KETONES)

PREPARATION

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

USES

TEST FOR ALDEHYDE

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

CLASSIFICATION

NOMENCLATURE

ISOMERISM

GENERAL METHODS OF PREPARATION

GENERAL PROPERTIES

SOLUBILITY

MELTING POINTS

ACIDITY OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

REDUCING CHARACTER OF FORMIC ACID

ACTION OF HEAT ON FORMATES

ACID DERIVATIVES

ACID CHLORIDES

ACID ANHYDRIDE (RCO)2O

ESTERS

AMIDES

UREA, CARBAMIDE (H2N.CO.NH2)

SUBSTITUTED ACIDS

SATURATED DICARBOXYLIC ACIDS

TARTARIC ACID

CITRIC ACID

OXALIC ACID, ETHANEDIOIC ACID (COOH)2.2H2O

BENZOIC ACID

SALICYCLIC ACID

ACID ANHYDRIDE (RCO)₂O

UREA, CARBAMIDE (H₂N.CO.NH2)

OXALIC ACID, ETHANEDIOIC ACID (COOH)₂.2H2O